why do we not depreciate land?

        The land asset is not depreciated, because it is considered to have an infinite useful life. This makes land unique among all asset types; it is the only one for which depreciation is prohibited.

           Nearly all fixed assets have a useful life, after which they no longer contribute to the operations of a company or they stop generating revenue. During this useful life, they are depreciated, which reduces their cost to what they are supposed to be worth at the end of their useful lives (which is known as salvage value). Land, however, has no definitive useful life, so there is no way to depreciate it. Instead, in the absence of natural resources that are to be extracted (see below), land is considered to have an unlimited life span. Further, due to the scarcity of land, its value tends to increase over time, as opposed to the decline in value of most other types of fixed assets.     

When an entity purchases land that has a building on it, the cost must be allocated between the land and the building; the result will be depreciation of the building, but not the land. A good way to derive this allocation is to use a property tax assessment or appraisal.

The one exception to the rule not to depreciate land is when some aspect of the land is actually used up, such as when a mine is emptied of its ore reserves. In this case you depreciate the natural resources in the land using the depletion method.

Depletion is the annual charge for the use of natural resources.  In order to compute depletion, it is first necessary to establish a depletion base, which is the amount of the de­pletable asset.

The depletion base includes the following elements: 

• Acquisition costs —The cost to obtain the property rights through purchase or lease, royalty payments to the property owner.
• Exploration costs —Typically, these costs are expenses as incurred; however in cer­tain circumstances in the oil and gas industry, they may be capitalized.
• Development costs —Intangible development costs such as drilling costs, tunnels, shafts, and wells.
• Restoration costs —The costs of restoring the property to its natural state after ex­traction of the natural resources has been completed.

The amount of the depletion base, less its estimated salvage value is charged to depletion expense each period using a depletion rate per unit extracted, or unit depletion rate that is computed using the following formula:

ARE THE OFFICIALS ABOVE THE LAW IN LAND MATTERS?

Despite a court ruling that the plots of land at Lugbe Extension 1 , along Airport Road, now

known as Kyami District , Abuja, belonged to MINANUEL INVESTMENT LTD purposely for

Mass Housing, some officials of the Federal Capital Territory Administration (FCTA ) and

the Federal Capital Development Authority ( FCDA ) have continued to re- allocate the said

parcel of land to third parties . In taking this brazen line of action, the FCTA and the FCDA

officials seem to suggest that they are above the law and do not care a hoot about the end-

goals of the anti -corruption campaign of the government of President Muhammadu

Buhari.
In a recent post in an online housing portal , ( www.housingnews .org .ng , p . 4539 ), of

March 22 , 2016 , it was reported that “ FCT Development Control Ignores Court Ruling,

approves development of hotel on demolished MINANUEL Estate Land ” . Now , this is said

 to have taken place in spite of the fact that on November 11 , 2013 , Justice D . Z . Senchi

of the FCT High Court , Apo , Abuja , in Suit No . FCT /HC / CV /714 /12 had ruled that “the

fresh allocation of the plots to private individuals was illegal , null and void and the said

allocations… are hereby set aside. Accordingly , the defendants (FCT Minister , FCTA &

FCDA ) are hereby restrained from taking possession or re- allocating same or any part

thereof to any person or group of persons … . ”

The tragedy of what is going on in MINANUEL Estate Land , Abuja , is that some officials of

the FCTA and the FCDA who are arrogantly disobeying a valid court judgment are doing so

under a political structure that has President Buhari, as its head . As far as the 1999

constitution ( as amended ) is concerned , the President of Nigeria is the governor of the Federal Capital Territory ( FCT ) , and the activities of the officials of the FCTA and the FCDA are subject to the control and directives of the Minister of the Federal Capital Territory ( MFCT) .
As I write , there is no evidence anywhere that the judgment of Justice Senchi on this matter is on appeal. The issue at hand, therefore , is that since both parties to the case earlier resolved on November 11 , 2013 ( N.C . R Associates Ltd , suing through its lawful Attorney, MINANUEL INVESTMENT LTD & the Minister FCT & 20 rs) are satisfied with the judgment of the court as there is no pending appeal against the judgment, why is the FCT Development Control , a department of the FCDA , re -allocating the land in question to third parties? Are officials of the FCTA and the FCDA pretending not to be aware that a valid court judgment affirmed MINANUEL INVESTMENT LTD as owners of the land and also declared “ null and void the re- allocation of plots … at Lugbe Extension 1 , along Airport Road, now known as Kyami District , Abuja , to third parties …”? . Are Nigerians being told that these officials are above the law ?
From whatever perspective this matter is appraised, it must be the height of impunity for some officials of the FCTA and the FCDA to blatantly and irresponsibly re- allocate plots of land at Lugbe Extension 1 , after a court had ruled that “the evidence before the court is that the title of the Plaintiff ( MINANUEL INVESTMENT LTD ) is still extant and it is not infected by any virus of revocation ” . This is why it may have become imperative that President Buhari personally intervenes .
It is bad enough that some officials of the FCTA and the FCDA have unpatriotically decided to ridicule the judiciary by embarking on acts that clearly undermined the judgment of a court. It is even worse that in re- allocating the plots of land , some officials of the FCTA and the FCDA , using the development control department of the FCT , are parceling out MINANUEL Estate’ s land to third parties for the building of hotels, etc. Even in a banana republic , the level of impunity that has been exhibited by some officials of the FCTA and the FCDA with regard to the plots of Land at Lugbe Extension 1 , would not be condoned.
The point just has to be made that Nigeria is today a democratic society where the rule of law prevails. In this wise, the officials of the FCTA and the FCDA who are behaving as if they own Nigeria and are accountable to nobody, must realise that the President of Nigeria today is a Muhammadu Buhari, a no nonsense leader. Perhaps , rather than make jest of the law by deliberately and mischievously undermining a valid court judgment, the officials in question should simply do the bidding of the law in this instance , which is , approve the building plan for MINANUEL INVESTMENT LTD for the plots at Lugbe Extension 1 , as well as see to the removal of illegal structures on the land .

Bulldozer in Road Construction

Bulldozer in Road Construction

          Probably the most common piece of equipment in forest road construction is the bulldozer equipped with straight or U-type blades. These are probably the most economical pieces of equipment when material has to be moved a short distance. The economic haul or push distance for a bulldozer with a straight blade is from 17 to 90 meters depending on grade. The road design should attempt to keep the mass balance points within these constraints.
The road design should consider the following points when bulldozers are to be used for road construction.

1. Roads should be full benched. Earth is side cast and then wasted rather than used to build up side cast fills.

2. Earth is moved down-grade with the aid of gravity, not up-grade.

3. Fill material is borrowed rather than pushed or hauled farther than the economic limit of the bulldozer.

4. Rock outcrops should be bypassed. Unless substantial rock blasting is specified requiring drilling and blasting equipment, solid rock faces should be avoided (This, however, is primarily a road locator's responsibility.)

Clearing and Grubbing of the Road Construction Area
Preparing the road right-of-way or construction area is referred to as clearing and grubbing. During the clearing phase, trees are felled. Grubbing refers to the clearing and removal of stumps and organic debris. Trees should be felled and cleared a minimum of 1 to 3 m from the top of the cut or toe of the fill (Figure 105). The logs can be decked outside the construction area (Figure 105, B to E) or skidded away.
Figure 105. Clearing limits in relation to road bed widths. Significant quantities of organic materials are removed between B and E. Stumps are removed between B and D. Stumps may be left between D and E. Organic debris and removed stumps are placed in windrows at F to serve as filter strips (see Section

ROAD CONSTRUCTION TECHNIQUES

                            ROAD CONSTRUCTION TECHNIQUES. (1)

          Prior to the construction activity the design information has to be moved from the plan to the ground. This is accomplished by staking. Slope stakes are an effective way to insure compliance with the design standards and to keep soil disturbance to an absolute minimum. Various staking methods can be employed. (Dietz et al., 1984; Pearce, 1960) The method discussed here is but one example.

         Stakes, marking various road design points, are typically obliterated during the clearing and grubbing phase. In order to relocate the stakes (centerline, slope stakes) it is helpful to establish reference points outside the clearing limits. Reference points should be set at least 3 to 5 meters behind the uphill clearing limits. On the average, reference points (or RP's) should be set at least every 70 to 100 meters. Typically, reference points are placed at points where the center line alignment can be easily re-established, such as points of curvature. Figure 102 shows the necessary stakes and stake notation needed by the equipment operator to construct a road.

          Stakes are used by the equipment operator in locating where to begin cutting. If the selected starting point is too high, considerably more material has to be cut in order to construct the proper subgrade (Figure 103). For example, if the cut results in a 20 percent wider subgrade, approximately 50 percent more volume has to be excavated. (See Section 3.2.2.) If the cut is placed too low, an overstepped cut slope or extra side casting may result, both of which are undesirable.

     Starting the cut at the proper point becomes more important as the side slope increases. As a rule, slope stakes should be set when sideslopes exceed 40 to 45 percent depending on the sensitivity of the area and the operator's experience.

        The use of RP's (Reference Points) or slope stakes for proper excavation is shown in Figure 104. Here, the engineer stands on the preliminary centerline of the construction grade and sights for the RP. A slope reading of 30 percent and a slope distance of 5.53 m is recorded. Converting the slope distance of 5.53 m to a horizontal distance of 5.30 m and to a vertical distance of 1.59 m allows the engineer to determine how much the "present" or preliminary centerline has to be shifted to conform with the design centerline. The RP tag requires 6.50 m horizontal distance to centerline with a vertical drop of 4.80 m. From that information, it can be seen that an additional 1.56 m [4.80 - (1.59 + 1.65) = 1.56] has to be cut and the present location has to be shifted by 1.2 m (6.50 - 5.30 = 1.20). Height of instrument or eye-level is assumed to be 1.65 m.

URBAN PLANNING AND MANAGEMENT WATER RESOURCES AND ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT

URBAN PLANNING AND MANAGEMENT
UNDERSTANDING URBAN PROCESSES AND CONTRIBUTING TO SUSTAINABLE URBAN DEVELOPMENTS

    The magnitude and dynamics of urbanization place an enormous burden on organizations responsible for the planning and management of urban regions. The core objectives of urban planning and management are seen as understanding dynamic urban processes and developing effective interventions that contribute to the development of competitive, compact, sustainable, inclusive and resilient cities. Geo-information and geo-information technology play a vital role in supporting these objectives.
The MSc degree course in urban planning and management integrates knowledge of, and skills in, geo-information technology with current themes in the field of urban planning and management. Themes include urban poverty, urban transport, infrastructure and public services, disaster preparedness and mitigation, urban environmental planning, land use and land tenure, participatory GIS, and spatial planning and decision support systems. 
                                      FOR WHOM IS THE COURSE RELEVANT?
Any academically oriented professional who is active in urban planning and management and who uses spatial data in planning and management tasks belongs to the target group, for example town and district planners, land (policy) officers, infrastructure and transport engineers and environmental planners. The course is also highly relevant for staff at universities and non-governmental organizations in the field of urban planning and management who are interested in the use of geo-information technology. The 18-month MSc course includes a strong research component and leads to an MSc degree.

WHAT IS THE COURSE CONTENT?
The master's programme in Geo-information Science and Earth Observation is divided into four blocks. The blocks vary in length and are divided into three week modules. The number of modules for the programme is 23.
Block 1 (modules 1-3)
Geo-information science and earth observation: focuses on the theory, tools and techniques of GIS and remote sensing and their application in urban planning

Urban planning and management: addresses contemporary themes in urban planning and management, with a dual focus on understanding the nature and dynamics of urban regions and on developing and evaluating interventions using geo-information technology in multi-stakeholder settings. Subjects dealt with in this block include:
urbanization processes
urban indicators and monitoring
spatial analytical techniques
statistics and visualization
conceptual modelling of urban processes
data gathering and information supply
governance of urban regions
planning and management approaches
policy processes and policy instruments
methods and tools in contemporary planning and management
planning and decision support
scenario development, modelling and scenario analy
Research methods and advanced choice subjects.

  MSc thesis research (linked to one of the ITC’s research themes).
In Blocks 3 and 4, participants specialize further in their field of interest and deepen knowledge and skills in preparation for the MSc research phase. The individual MSc research takes place in a multidisciplinary research project that is related to one of ITC’s main research themes. The research typically includes fieldwork in a city in a developing country to collect primary and secondary data and information.

  . . WHAT WILL BE ACHIEVED?
The MSc course in Geo-information Science and Earth Observation for Urban Planning and Management aims to improve the knowledge and skills of the course participants in the use of geo-information science for effective task execution and problem solving in urban planning and management.
In addition, the MSc course will enable participants to specialize further in current research themes and will give them the opportunity to undertake an independent research project, making effective use of geo-information technology.

ABOUT YOUR DIPLOMA.
   Upon successful completion of this programme you are entitled to the degree Master of Science. You will receive an (Academic Education) Diploma in Geo-information Science and Earth Observation from the University of Twente.
Along with your diploma you will receive a Diploma Supplement , providing the name of the specialization, the description of the nature, level, context, and statu  . . .


WHY CHOOSE   THIS COURSE?
In a recent survey, graduates gave the following reasons for following a course in urban planning and management at ITC:
advanced expertise in geo-information science and remote sensing
relevant contents and tools, reflecting contemporary urban planning practice
opportunity to undertake empirical research in developing countries
international environment, with access to Dutch and European experiences.
All in all, ITC offers a unique international academic environment for applying geo-information technology within the context of urban planning and management.



CAREER PERSPECTIVE
Graduates of the urban planning and management MSc degree course will be able to work in advisory, operational, technical and executive functions related to urban and regional planning. This includes functions such as
town planner, transport planner, consultant for metropolitan development, policy advisor, public service administrator, local government officer, community development worker, environmental manager or government social research officer. For excellent students with research ambitions this master course is a good starting point for PhD research with an academic research group in Europe or worldwide.

HOW  TO WRITE A BUSINESS PLAN
 
           It’s ideal to write a business plan before the start of any new venture. Whether you’re

 starting a business, running a business, or about to expand a business, having a business

plan as a road map to follow is crucial to your success.

Writing a business plan will help you easier achieve your entrepreneurial goals. It will give

you a clear and concise path to follow through the course of your business executions, and
will keep you focused on your target. Irrespective of achieving your entrepreneurial goals, having a business plan can be a great element to securing a bank loan and getting funding from an investor. You can find 10 comprehensive reasons to write a robust plan for your business here.
That said, here’s how to write a great business plan that’d set you up for success and build investors confidence in you.

1). Executive Summary:
This comes directly after the title page. The executive summary is the general overview of your business plan. It tells the reader exactly what you want to achieve. In a broad view, the executive summary’s purpose is to list out your business goals and expressively describe your company profile.
It’s always advisable to study an existing executive summary example to understand how, and in what depth, you should craft yours. Expressly copying an executive summary template is wrong, but getting an intelligent stance on how yours should be written can be achieved by studying an executive summary example.
The easiest way to write your business plan and finish it fast is to use LivePlan. LivePlan makes the business plan generation process very simple and straight forward, and goes for a really low price.

       2). Business Description:

Your business description is an explanation of what your company does, the industry your

business is operating in, and what differentiates your business from others. It should also contain a more detailed information about your company profile.
When writing your company description, it’s important you talk about the current trends in your market and how you expect the future to turn out. You should talk about the widespread markets operating in your industry, and how some diverse products or services can benefit or affect your business.

      3). Market Analysis & Strategies:
Your market analysis is going to contain a comprehensive research of your market and the competitors in your business industry. When you do a thorough market analysis, you become very familiar with the market, and find it easier to narrow down who your immediate target customers could be. With this information, your business can be well positioned to claim a good percentage of the market when you start out.
If you’re finding it difficult to carry out a market research on your own, you could employ the services of marketing research firms to help you out in your market assessment. They wouldn’t just provide results, but would also outline a marketing plan you could follow, which covers diverse marketing strategies to get a good percentage of the market.

4). Design & Development Plan:

  Here you provide your potential creditors and investors, information about your product design and development plan. You’d show your product development strategy, business development plan, and how the business will reach it’s goals by creating a development budget.
5). Organization & Management:
The business organization and management will show what business structure your organization is going to adopt. Since every organization is structured differently, picking the right organization and management structure that would aid you in achieving your goals is important for your business plan to be concise.
See Also: This Is How Competition Will Save Your Small Business

6). Service or Product Line:
Here you outline your product line, services you offer, and your general product ideas. You’ll describe how your product lines would benefit your customers, and also show the layout of the product lifecycle.
You’ll list your product line pricing, slightly talk about your product’s market research, your product development process and strategy, and your service line.
It’s important that at this phase, you tell the complete story of your company’s product line, so that anyone reading through can understand a lot better and easily connect with the message you’re trying to pass.

7). Sales And Marketing:
Your sales and marketing will cover how you intend to market the business and eventually turn a profit. Here you outline your marketing strategies based on the information gotten from your market research and analysis. You’ll also outline how to reach your target customers, your marketing strategies & promotional tactics, how you’ll price your products and/or services, and how you intend to position the individual brands of your products and/or services.

8). Funding Request:
Here you’ll state all your financial needs. If the purpose of your business plan is to get business funding, then you should include the total amount it would take to run the company, and how you expect to reap strong financial gains from it in the short or long term.
Getting a grant or seed funding through your business plan can sometimes be tricky if you don’t know the real expectations of the institutions you plan on getting it from. But detailing your business funding request in the most promising and realistic financially rewarding way for the funding agencies to digest, would be your best be

   9). Financial Projections:
Your financial projections have to be detailed in the most cost-effective manner. This becomes more important if you’re seeking funding from a financial institution. Find out the full information you need to include in your financial forecast for your funding request to pull through or look more feasible. If funding is not the reason for creating the business plan, then you still need to be very realistic in the preparation. Any assumed or exaggerated figure can lead to utter disappointments.

  10). Appendix:
The appendix part of your business plan is optional. It usually contains your:
Patents, licences, and permits
Contracts
Letters of reference
Legal documents
Book references
And a lot more.
You can research the full information your appendix should need; especially based on the region you come from.

    Renewable and non-renewable resources

   
            A coal mine in Wyoming, United States. Coal , produced over millions of years, is a finite and non-renewable resource on a human time scale.
A non-renewable resource (also called a finite resource) is a resource that does not renew itself at a sufficient rate for sustainable economic extraction in meaningful human time-frames. An example is carbon-based, organically-derived fuel. The original organic material, with the aid of heat and pressure, becomes a fuel such as oil or gas. Earth minerals and metal ores , fossil fuels ( coal , petroleum , natural gas ) and groundwater in certain aquifers are all non-renewable resources.
In contrast, resources such as timber (when
harvested sustainably ) and wind (used to power energy conversion systems) are considered
               renewable resources , largely because their localized replenishment can occur within time frames meaningful to humans.
Earth minerals and metal ores

Main articles: Mineral and Ore
Further information: Mining

                 Earth minerals and metal ores are examples of non-renewable resources. The metals themselves are present in vast amounts in Earth's crust , and their extraction by humans only occurs where they are concentrated by natural geological processes (such as heat, pressure, organic activity, weathering and other processes) enough to become economically viable to extract. These processes generally take from tens of thousands to millions of years, through
plate tectonics, tectonic subsidence and crustal recycling .
                The localized deposits of metal ores near the surface which can be extracted economically by humans are non-renewable in human time-frames. There are certain rare earth minerals and elements that are more scarce and exhaustible than others. These are in high demand in manufacturing , particularly for the
electronics industry.
              Most metal ores are considered vastly greater in supply to fossil fuels, because metal ores are formed by crustal-scale processes which make up a much larger portion of the Earth's near-surface environment, than those that form fossil fuels which are limited to areas where carbon-based life forms flourish, die, and are quickly buried.
Fossil fuels
              Main article: Fossil fuel
              Further information: Oil depletion
        Natural resources such as coal , petroleum (crude oil) and natural gas take thousands of years to form naturally and cannot be replaced as fast as they are being consumed. Eventually it is considered that fossil-based resources will become too costly to harvest and humanity will need to shift its reliance to other sources of energy such as solar or wind power, see renewable energy.
            An alternative hypothesis is that carbon based fuel is virtually inexhaustible in human terms, if one includes all sources of carbon-based energy such as methane hydrates on the sea floor, which are vastly greater than all other carbon based fossil fuel resources combined. [citation needed ] These sources of carbon are also considered non-renewable, although their rate of formation/replenishment on the sea floor is not known. However their extraction at economically viable costs and rates has yet to be determined.
At present, the main energy source used by humans is non-renewable fossil fuels . Since the dawn of
internal combustion engine technologies in the 17th century, petroleum and other fossil fuels have remained in continual demand. As a result, conventional infrastructure and transport systems, which are fitted to combustion engines, remain prominent throughout the globe. The continual use of fossil fuels at the current rate is believed to increase global warming and cause more severe
climate change .
Nuclear fuels
Rössing uranium mine is the longest-running and one of the largest open pit uranium mines in the world, every year it produces eight percent of global uranium

                      LAND ECONOMICS


     This article is about Land economics, see Land Economics (journal).In economics,  Land

comprises all naturally resources or occurring resources whose supply is inherently fixed,

E.g are any and all particular

(1) geographical locations,

(2)mineral deposits,

(3) forests,

(4)fish stocks,

(5)atmospheric quality,

(6) geostationary orbits,

(7)and portions of the electromagnetic spectrum.

   Natural resources are fundamental to the production of all goods, including capital goods. Location values must not be confused with values imparted by fixed capital improvements. Inclassical economics, land is considered one of the three factors of production (also sometimes called the three producer goods) along with capital, andlabor. Land is sometimes merged with capital to simplify micro-economics. However, a common mistake is combining land and capital in macro-analysis. Income derived from ownership or control of natural resources is referred to as rent.Land was sometimes defined in classical andneoclassical economics as the "original and indestructible powers of the soil."
     Georgistshold that this implies a perfectly inelastic supply curve (i.e., zero elasticity), suggesting that a land value tax that recovers the rent of land for public purposes would not affect the opportunity cost of using land, but would instead only decrease the value of owning it. This view is supported by evidence that although land can come on and off the market, market inventories of land show if anything an inverse relationship to price (i.e., negative elasticity). As a tangible asset land is represented in accounting as a fixed asset or a capital asset.Land, particularly geographic locations and mineral deposits, has historically been the cause of much conflict and dispute; land reform programs, which are designed to redistribute possession and/or use of geographic land, are often the cause of much controversy, and conflicts over the economic rent of mineral deposits have contributed to many civil wars.

                                  LAND ECONIMICS



         Land Economics is devoted to the study of economic aspects of the entire spectrum of natural and environmental resources, emphasizing conceptual and/or empirical work with direct relevance for public policy. Founded in 1925 as the Journal of Land and Public Utility Economics, the emphasis remains with articles that address the determinants and consequences of economic activity on the value and use of land, or the contribution of natural and environmental resources to economic activity. - See more at: https://uwpress.wisc.edu/journals/journals/le.html#sthash.sbwBNIU0.dpuf

Land Law Act

           Land law is the form of law that deals with therights to use, alienate, or exclude others from land. In many jurisdictions, these kinds of property are referred to as real estate or real property, as distinct from personal property. Land useagreements, including renting, are an important intersection of property and contract law.  Encumbrance on the land rights of one, such as aneasement, may constitute the land rights of another. Mineral rights and water rights are closely linked, and often interrelated concepts. Land rights are such a basic form of law that they develop even where there is no state to enforce them; for example, the claim clubs of the American Westwere institutions that arose organically to enforce the system of rules appurtenant to mining.Squatting, the occupation of land without ownership, is a globally ubiquitous phenomenon.

 

    Geographical information system is to create interactive queries (user-created searches), analyze spatial information, edit data in maps, and present the results of all these operations.   Geographic information science is the science underlying geographic concepts, applications, and systems.[4]GIS is a broad term that can refer to a number of different technologies, processes, and methods. It is attached to many operations and has many applications related to engineering, planning, management, transport/logistics, insurance, telecommunications, and business.[3] For that reason, GIS and location intelligence applications can be the foundation for many location-enabled services that rely on analysis and visualization.GIS can relate unrelated information by using location as the key index variable. Locations or extents in the Earth space–time may be recorded as dates/times of occurrence, and x, y, and zcoordinates representing, longitude, latitude, andelevation, respectively. All Earth-based spatial–temporal location and extent references should, ideally, be relatable to one another and ultimately to a "real" physical location or extent. This key characteristic of GIS has begun to open new avenues of scientific inquiry.

inquiry into behaviors and patterns of real-world information that previously had not been systematically correlated.

GIS uncertainties

GIS accuracy depends upon source data, and how it is encoded to be data referenced. Land surveyors have been able to provide a high level of positional accuracy utilizing the GPS-derived positions.[16]High-resolution digital terrain and aerial imagery,[17] powerful computers and Web technology are changing the quality, utility, and expectations of GIS to serve society on a grand scale, but nevertheless there are other source data that have an impact on overall GIS accuracy like paper maps, though these may be of limited use in achieving the desired accuracy since the aging of maps affects their dimensional stability.In developing a digital topographic database for a GIS, topographical maps are the main source, andaerial photography and satellite imagery are extra sources for collecting data and identifying attributes which can be mapped in layers over a location facsimile of scale. The scale of a map and geographical rendering area representation type[clarification needed] are very important aspects since the information content depends mainly on the scale set and resulting locatability of the map's representations. In order to map, the map has to be checked within theoretical dimensions, then scanned into a raster format, and resulting raster data has to be given a theoretical dimension by a rubber sheeting/warping technology process.A quantitative analysis of maps brings accuracy issues into focus. The electronic and other equipment used to make measurements for GIS is far more precise than the machines of conventional map analysis. All geographical data are inherently inaccurate, and these inaccuracies will propagate through GIS operations in ways that are difficult to predict.

LAND SURVEYING  

       

           Surveying or land surveying is the technique, profession, and science of determining the terrestrial or three-dimensional position of points and the distances and angles between them. A land surveying professional is called a land surveyor.     These points are usually on the surface of the Earth, and they are often used to establish land maps and boundaries for ownership, locations like building corners or the surface location of subsurface features, or other purposes required by government or civil law, such as property sales.  Surveyors work with elements of geometry,trigonometry, regression analysis, physics,engineering, metrology, programming languagesand the law. They use equipment like total stations, robotic total stations, GPS receivers, retroreflectors,3D scanners, radios, handheld tablets, digital levels, drones, GIS and surveying software.               Surveying has been an element in the development of the human environment since the beginning of recorded history. The planning and execution of most forms of construction require it. It is also used in transport, communications, mapping, and the definition of legal boundaries for land ownership. It is an important tool for research in many other scientific disciplines.

LAND SURVEYING

            PUBLIC LAND USE & BEAUTIFICATION COMMITTEE

       The Committee Chair: Carl Morgan (contact) , they meet Every last Monday of the month, 6:30 pm at Community Health Councils 3731 Stocker Street Suite 2nd floor, Los Angeles CA 90008 The Planning, Land Use & Beautification Committee (PLUB) is responsible for the oversight and monitoring of all land use proposals and policy changes within the neighborhood council boundaries; communication and coordination with appropriate city agencies and stakeholders responsible for or engaged in land use, economic and community development, community beautification and nuisance abatement.FINANCE COMMITTEE PLANNING, LAND USE & BEAUTIFICATION OUTREACH PLUB Agendas, West Adams Community Plan Draft Environmental Impact Report (DEIR)Ralph’s Market Conditional Use Permit (La Brea/Rodeo), if you want to know more about Land beautification keep on reading this blog, thanks .
 Keep reading ECWA news.