Renewable and non-renewable resources

   
            A coal mine in Wyoming, United States. Coal , produced over millions of years, is a finite and non-renewable resource on a human time scale.
A non-renewable resource (also called a finite resource) is a resource that does not renew itself at a sufficient rate for sustainable economic extraction in meaningful human time-frames. An example is carbon-based, organically-derived fuel. The original organic material, with the aid of heat and pressure, becomes a fuel such as oil or gas. Earth minerals and metal ores , fossil fuels ( coal , petroleum , natural gas ) and groundwater in certain aquifers are all non-renewable resources.
In contrast, resources such as timber (when
harvested sustainably ) and wind (used to power energy conversion systems) are considered
               renewable resources , largely because their localized replenishment can occur within time frames meaningful to humans.
Earth minerals and metal ores

Main articles: Mineral and Ore
Further information: Mining

                 Earth minerals and metal ores are examples of non-renewable resources. The metals themselves are present in vast amounts in Earth's crust , and their extraction by humans only occurs where they are concentrated by natural geological processes (such as heat, pressure, organic activity, weathering and other processes) enough to become economically viable to extract. These processes generally take from tens of thousands to millions of years, through
plate tectonics, tectonic subsidence and crustal recycling .
                The localized deposits of metal ores near the surface which can be extracted economically by humans are non-renewable in human time-frames. There are certain rare earth minerals and elements that are more scarce and exhaustible than others. These are in high demand in manufacturing , particularly for the
electronics industry.
              Most metal ores are considered vastly greater in supply to fossil fuels, because metal ores are formed by crustal-scale processes which make up a much larger portion of the Earth's near-surface environment, than those that form fossil fuels which are limited to areas where carbon-based life forms flourish, die, and are quickly buried.
Fossil fuels
              Main article: Fossil fuel
              Further information: Oil depletion
        Natural resources such as coal , petroleum (crude oil) and natural gas take thousands of years to form naturally and cannot be replaced as fast as they are being consumed. Eventually it is considered that fossil-based resources will become too costly to harvest and humanity will need to shift its reliance to other sources of energy such as solar or wind power, see renewable energy.
            An alternative hypothesis is that carbon based fuel is virtually inexhaustible in human terms, if one includes all sources of carbon-based energy such as methane hydrates on the sea floor, which are vastly greater than all other carbon based fossil fuel resources combined. [citation needed ] These sources of carbon are also considered non-renewable, although their rate of formation/replenishment on the sea floor is not known. However their extraction at economically viable costs and rates has yet to be determined.
At present, the main energy source used by humans is non-renewable fossil fuels . Since the dawn of
internal combustion engine technologies in the 17th century, petroleum and other fossil fuels have remained in continual demand. As a result, conventional infrastructure and transport systems, which are fitted to combustion engines, remain prominent throughout the globe. The continual use of fossil fuels at the current rate is believed to increase global warming and cause more severe
climate change .
Nuclear fuels
Rössing uranium mine is the longest-running and one of the largest open pit uranium mines in the world, every year it produces eight percent of global uranium

                      LAND ECONOMICS


     This article is about Land economics, see Land Economics (journal).In economics,  Land

comprises all naturally resources or occurring resources whose supply is inherently fixed,

E.g are any and all particular

(1) geographical locations,

(2)mineral deposits,

(3) forests,

(4)fish stocks,

(5)atmospheric quality,

(6) geostationary orbits,

(7)and portions of the electromagnetic spectrum.

   Natural resources are fundamental to the production of all goods, including capital goods. Location values must not be confused with values imparted by fixed capital improvements. Inclassical economics, land is considered one of the three factors of production (also sometimes called the three producer goods) along with capital, andlabor. Land is sometimes merged with capital to simplify micro-economics. However, a common mistake is combining land and capital in macro-analysis. Income derived from ownership or control of natural resources is referred to as rent.Land was sometimes defined in classical andneoclassical economics as the "original and indestructible powers of the soil."
     Georgistshold that this implies a perfectly inelastic supply curve (i.e., zero elasticity), suggesting that a land value tax that recovers the rent of land for public purposes would not affect the opportunity cost of using land, but would instead only decrease the value of owning it. This view is supported by evidence that although land can come on and off the market, market inventories of land show if anything an inverse relationship to price (i.e., negative elasticity). As a tangible asset land is represented in accounting as a fixed asset or a capital asset.Land, particularly geographic locations and mineral deposits, has historically been the cause of much conflict and dispute; land reform programs, which are designed to redistribute possession and/or use of geographic land, are often the cause of much controversy, and conflicts over the economic rent of mineral deposits have contributed to many civil wars.

                                  LAND ECONIMICS



         Land Economics is devoted to the study of economic aspects of the entire spectrum of natural and environmental resources, emphasizing conceptual and/or empirical work with direct relevance for public policy. Founded in 1925 as the Journal of Land and Public Utility Economics, the emphasis remains with articles that address the determinants and consequences of economic activity on the value and use of land, or the contribution of natural and environmental resources to economic activity. - See more at: https://uwpress.wisc.edu/journals/journals/le.html#sthash.sbwBNIU0.dpuf

Land Law Act

           Land law is the form of law that deals with therights to use, alienate, or exclude others from land. In many jurisdictions, these kinds of property are referred to as real estate or real property, as distinct from personal property. Land useagreements, including renting, are an important intersection of property and contract law.  Encumbrance on the land rights of one, such as aneasement, may constitute the land rights of another. Mineral rights and water rights are closely linked, and often interrelated concepts. Land rights are such a basic form of law that they develop even where there is no state to enforce them; for example, the claim clubs of the American Westwere institutions that arose organically to enforce the system of rules appurtenant to mining.Squatting, the occupation of land without ownership, is a globally ubiquitous phenomenon.

 

    Geographical information system is to create interactive queries (user-created searches), analyze spatial information, edit data in maps, and present the results of all these operations.   Geographic information science is the science underlying geographic concepts, applications, and systems.[4]GIS is a broad term that can refer to a number of different technologies, processes, and methods. It is attached to many operations and has many applications related to engineering, planning, management, transport/logistics, insurance, telecommunications, and business.[3] For that reason, GIS and location intelligence applications can be the foundation for many location-enabled services that rely on analysis and visualization.GIS can relate unrelated information by using location as the key index variable. Locations or extents in the Earth space–time may be recorded as dates/times of occurrence, and x, y, and zcoordinates representing, longitude, latitude, andelevation, respectively. All Earth-based spatial–temporal location and extent references should, ideally, be relatable to one another and ultimately to a "real" physical location or extent. This key characteristic of GIS has begun to open new avenues of scientific inquiry.

inquiry into behaviors and patterns of real-world information that previously had not been systematically correlated.

GIS uncertainties

GIS accuracy depends upon source data, and how it is encoded to be data referenced. Land surveyors have been able to provide a high level of positional accuracy utilizing the GPS-derived positions.[16]High-resolution digital terrain and aerial imagery,[17] powerful computers and Web technology are changing the quality, utility, and expectations of GIS to serve society on a grand scale, but nevertheless there are other source data that have an impact on overall GIS accuracy like paper maps, though these may be of limited use in achieving the desired accuracy since the aging of maps affects their dimensional stability.In developing a digital topographic database for a GIS, topographical maps are the main source, andaerial photography and satellite imagery are extra sources for collecting data and identifying attributes which can be mapped in layers over a location facsimile of scale. The scale of a map and geographical rendering area representation type[clarification needed] are very important aspects since the information content depends mainly on the scale set and resulting locatability of the map's representations. In order to map, the map has to be checked within theoretical dimensions, then scanned into a raster format, and resulting raster data has to be given a theoretical dimension by a rubber sheeting/warping technology process.A quantitative analysis of maps brings accuracy issues into focus. The electronic and other equipment used to make measurements for GIS is far more precise than the machines of conventional map analysis. All geographical data are inherently inaccurate, and these inaccuracies will propagate through GIS operations in ways that are difficult to predict.